Palm Oil (PO)
Palm Oil (P0) is obtained from the fruit of the oil palm tree, which grows well in hot, humid, tropical countries, the main ones being Malaysia and Indonesia. Because of its very high yield per hectare, and good plantation management, palm oil has much the lowest cost of production of any oil. Its growth in the last 40 years has been spectacular. It is now the second largest oil in world production and on present trends, it will overtake soyabean oil in the next 10 years.
Palm oil is in fact a fat in temperate countries, with melting point of 33-39C, iodine value 50-55 and solid fat content about 26%. Its fatty acid composition is based on palmitic acid (44%), oleic acid (39%) and linoleic acid (11%). A major advantage is that unlike hydrogenated oils with the same melting point, it contains no trans fatty acids which are now accepted to be risk factors for heart disease.
Crude PO is normally traded on the basis of 5% FFA, but most of the exported PO is RBD (refined, bleached and deodorised) grade with FFA 0.1% max. During transportation to distant countries some deterioration in quality is inevitable, but still this grade is acceptable for consumption without any further treatment, in many countries. In Europe and USA however it is always given a mild refining treatment.
The main uses of PO are in frying and in the production of margarines, shortenings and vanaspati.
The soap industry is also a big user although with it, the colour of the soap is not quite as good as with tallow. On the other hand, its vegetable origin gives it other advantages.
Palm Olein (POo)
Palm Olein (POo) is the softer fraction obtained on fractionation of palm oil, the harder fraction being the stearin. The name palm olein is usually abbreviated as POo, POL, or PL, the first one more usual in technical writings. This oil was developed in order to expand the range of uses of PO and it has been extremely successful. Now more RBDPOo is traded internationally than RBDPO.
The main characteristics of POo are SMP 19-24C, IV 56-62 and SFC 0-9 % at 20C. Its average fatty acid composition is palmitic acid (41%), oleic acid (42%) and linoleic acid (12%). However, RBD POo is usually traded on the specification of FFA 0.1% max, SMP 24C max and IV 56 min. on loading. There is a good inverse correlation between the IV and the SMP and SFC of olein, and buyers should aim for the highest value.
POo is much more stable to oxidation and flavour deterioration than any of the major seed oils, its main disadvantage being its tendency to become cloudy, or even semi-solid, in temperate climates.
Palm Stearin (PS or POs)
Palm Stearin is the harder fraction from the fractionation of palm oil, the softer fraction being the olein. The name stearin is usually abbreviated as POs or PS, with the first one more usual in technical writings. The demand for stearin is lower than that for olein and so it has always been sold at discount to both olein and palm oil.
The main characteristics of POs are SMP 47-54 C, IV 28-45 and SFC 25-71% at 20C. Its average fatty acid composition is palmitic acid (57%), oleic acid (29%) and linoleic acid (7%). However RBD POs is usually traded on the PORAM specification of FFA 0.2% max, SMP 44C min. and IV 48 max. on loading. In the past there was much futile debate whether oils of such high melting points would have reduced digestibility and indeed whether they could be considered edible. POs is meant to be blended with other softer oils and it is the MP of the blend that counts and not that of its components.
Palm stearin is very useful in the formulation of pastry margarine, of table margarine with interesterification and of hard long lasting soap.
Double Fractionated Palm Olein, or Super Olein (POoo or DFPOo)
Double Fractionated Palm Olein, or Super Olein is a softer type of olein obtained by fractionation of the standard olein, in order to achieve the maximum possible fluidity. The name is usually abbreviated as POoo or DFPOo, the first one more usual in technical writings. This is a speciality product, for which there is no common standard such as PORAM, and so there are differences according to manufacturer. Its price is always at a premium to standard olein.
The main characteristics of POoo are SMP 13-17 C, IV 60-68 and SFC 0-26% at 10C. Its major fatty acids are palmitic acid (35%), oleic acid (45%) and linoleic acid (13%). Different manufacturers set their own limits within the above ranges.
POoo is used for bottling, as it remains fully liquid in tropical climates and also in temperate climates if blended with sufficient seed oil. Its great advantage over the major seed oils is its much greater resistance to oxidation.
Palm Mid Fraction (PMF)
Palm Mid Fraction (PMF) is a speciality fat produced by multiple fractionation of palm oil. Its main characteristic is a very high content in symmetrical disaturated triglycerides (mainly POP) resulting in a very steep SFC/ Temperature curve. This fraction is the basis of virtually all true CBE's on the market and is also very suitable for use in chocolate covered centres in place of lauric fats, which pose the risk of soapy rancidity when used improperly.
Being a speciality fat, PMF is produced in a wide range of characteristics, eg. IV 32-48, SMP 32-38C, SFC (20C) 45-90%, using either solvent or dry fractionation and users must negotiate their own range limits with the manufacturers.
Palm Acid Oil (PAO)
Palm Acid Oil (PAO) is a by-product from the chemical refining of palm oil. It consists mainly of FFA (over 50%) and neutral oil, with 2-3% moisture and other impurities. It is very similar to palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), but its FFA is generally lower. Except for some special uses, the relative proportion of FFA to neutral oil does not usually matter very much, as it does not affect its fitness for use. In most cases the smell and colour are more important.
The main uses of PAO are in are animal feeds, in soap making and for distilled fatty acid production. This product is not now produced on any great scale outside Europe, because in Malaysia and Indonesia palm oil is refined by the physical process which gives PFAD rather than PAO.
Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD)
Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) is a by-product from the physical refining of palm oil which is now the most widely used process in the major producing countries. Its scale of production is large enough to support significant international trade in it. PFAD has very similar composition to palm acid oil (PAO), but it generally has higher FFA (over 70%), the balance being neutral oil and up to 1% moisture and impurities. Good quality material has good smell and light colour.
Its main uses are in animal feeds, including some speciality products, in soap making and in the production of distilled fatty acids. This product is produced in much greater volume than PAO.
Palm Kernel Oil (PKO)
Palm Kernel Oil (PKO), is derived from the kennel of the palm fruit and so it is a co-product of palm oil production . But PKO is the minor product and in world terms, about 81/2 tonnes PO is produced for every tonne of PKO. This oil together with coconut oil compose the lauric group, so named because their fatty acid composition is based predominantly on lauric acid.
PKO has a slip melting point of 26-28 C, iodine value 16-19 and SFC (20C) about 40%. Its fatty acid composition consists mainly of lauric acid (C12:0) about 48%, myristic acid (C14:0) 16% and oleic acid (C18:0) 15%, with total saturates of about 82%. Crude PKO is usually traded on the basis of FFA 5% max., moisture and impurities 1% max. and IV 19 max. on loading. PKO is very similar to coconut oil and has very similar uses, primarily in ice cream, sugar confectionery, substitute chocolate, special bakery margarines oleochemicals and soap. A proportion of lauric oil is necessary in soap formulations, to confer good lathering properties. PKO is also fractionated into PK stearin (used as CBS) and PK olein.
Palm Kernel Stearin (PKs)
As in the case of PO, substantial quantities of PKO are fractionated in the producing countries and in Europe, into PKs and palm kernel olein (PKOo), but in this case the stearin is the more valuable product. Compared with PKO, it has higher melting point, lower IV and higher SFC at all temperatures. Typical values are SMP 32-33C, IV 6-8, SFC(20) about 82% and SFC(35) 0%. The lauric acid (C12:0) content is about 57%.
The combination of very high SFC(20), low MP and good oxidative stability, makes PKs an excellent confectionery fat. Its main use is as a cocoa butter substitute (CBS), either as it stands or after some hydrogenation. It is also used for other confectionery products, high quality biscuit creams, toppings and similar products. In the past, when most of its production was concentrated in West Europe, this fat was a rather expensive speciality. But with rapidly increasing PKO production and fractionation moving to S.E. Asia, it is becoming much more easily accessible, and competitively priced.
Palm Kernel Olein (PKOo)
Palm Kernel Olein (PKOo) is the secondary product of PKO fractionation, normally selling at a small discount to PKO. Compared with PKO, the olein has higher IV, and lower melting point and SFC at all temperatures. Typical values are, IV 21 - 25, SMP 22 - 25C and SFC (20C) about 17% . Its major fatty acids are approximately, lauric acid (C12:O) 45% and oleic acid (C18:1) 19%.
PKOo is very suitable for ice cream making and also for soap production to provide the necessary lauric acid. When hydrogenated, it becomes very similar to hydrogenated PKO and can be used for the same applications such as biscuit and cake creams, sugar confectionery, chocolate flavoured coatings, filled milk, coffee whiteners, vegetable cheese analogues and similar products.
Palm Kernel Meal (PKM)
Palm Kernel Meal (PKM) is the meal left after removing the oil from palm kernels, which can be done by solvent extraction, or by pressing or both.
Palm Kernel Expellers (PKE) refers to the particular grade of meal produced using Expeller-types crew presses. This grade has a higher fat content (6-8%, against 1-2% for the solvent extracted meal)) and no risk of residual solvent and so it is in greater demand and sells at a higher price. PKE is the main grade imported by the EU which is its biggest importer and user.
PKM (all grades) is used for animal feeds especially cattle, either alone, or after compounding with other feeds to produce a more balanced food for the animal. It is classified as an "energy feed" and so it competes on price with copra meal, barley, corn, tapioca and similar, in contrast to soyabean meal, fish meal etc which are "protein meals" and sell at much higher prices. PKM also has the disadvantage of high levels of indigestible fibre and grittiness due to shell residues and afflatoxin contamination if improperly produced or shipped.
PKE usually contains 14-19% protein and 6-8% fat, but in international trade the main specification item is: protein+fat 21-23%.
Coconut oil (CNO)
Coconut oil (CNO), is derived from copra, which is the dried kernel or "meat" of coconuts. The coconut palm belongs to the species Cocos nucifera which grows in the humid regions a few degrees latitude from the Equator. The biggest producing country is the Philippines, followed by Indonesia and India.
CNO and PKO are the only two lauric fats in world trade and are very similar to each other in their properties and applications. The main practical difference being that CNO has a little lower melting point. It has a slip melting point of 23-25C, IV 6.3 - 10.6 (Codex, 2001) and its major fatty acids are on average C12:0 48%, C14:0 18% and C16:0 9% by mass. CNO is also much more resistant to oxidation than PKO and even when fully hydrogenated, its melting point remains below mouth temperature.
Major uses of CNO are in ice cream, filled milk, coffee whiteners, cream fillings, soap and oleochemicals.
Carotene
The orange-red colour of fresh CPO is due to the presence of corotenoid (carotene-like) pigments.There are are more than 200 different carotenes in nature, but those present in PO are alpha and beta carotenes at about 35% and 56% respectively. In fact PO is probably the richest source of these two carotenes in nature.The Malaysian standard for PO, MS 814: 1994, gives a content of 500 to 1000 ppm carotenoids, but the usual level is around 500 to 700 ppm.
Alpha and beta carotene are among the most important ones, because in the human body they are converted to vitamin A. Lack of this vitamin causes a variety of disorders, including blindness in children and the UN has estimated that about 200,000 children in the world are suffering from this disorder and could be cured, if given some CPO or red olein, with their food.
Carotenes are also important indicators of CPO quality. With prolonged storage, the carotenes in it oxidise and its colour changes gradually from bright orange-red to muddy brown. So by just looking at it, experienced operators can tell a lot about its quality.
Cloud Point
This is a test which determines the temperature at which a sample of oil starts to become cloudy, when cooled under the specified conditions. It is usually applied to liquid, or semi liquid, oils which are too soft for easy measurement of their melting point. A typical case is that of palm olein which has melting point of 19-24C and cloud point 6-12C. But this cloud point value can be very misleading because it is always much below the temperature at which the oil will become cloudy under normal storage conditions. The melting point gives a much more realistic estimate of clouding tendency in these situations. Super olein has a cloud point of 3-6C, but even that becomes cloudy if held for long at 15C and in the West it has to be blended with one of the fully liquid oils.
Cocoa Butter
Cocoa Butter is the fat derived from the fruit of the tree species Theobroma cacao, which literally means food of the gods. It belongs to the group of fats called vegetable butters and it is by far the most important confectionery fat because of its unique flavour and mouth feel.
CB has a slip melting point of about 35C, IV 34 -38 and fatty acid composition of about 26% C16:0 (palmitic acid), 34% C18:0 (stearic acid), 35% C18:1 (oleic acid) and others 5%. The main origin of CB in world commerce is West Africa. Malaysian/ Indonesian CB is harder and South American origin is softer. CB crystallises in up to six unstable forms and in use it has to be taken through a tempering cycle.
Its main application is in chocolate where the only other fat allowed to be added are milk fat. Some countries also allow 5% of certain vegetable fats, in practice however only a few specially formulated fats called CBE are fully compatible with it.
Cocoa butter equivalents (CBE)
Cocoa butter equivalents (CBE) are vegetable fats based on the same fatty acids and the same type of triglyceride, as CB. This leads to them to having also very similar physical properties and to being compatible with CB in all proportions without any significant effect on the behaviour of the chocolate.
In both CB and CBE the fatty acids are palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0) and oleic (18:1) and the triglycerides are symmetrical 2-oleo disaturated (SOS) Their SMP is about 35C and the IV about 34-40. The main of CBE is in genuine chocolate to replace expensive CB, but in the EU the maximum permitted level is 5% and in the USA they are not permitted at any level in chocolate. Chocolate-type products containing more CBE than legally permitted, are called super coatings. In spite of their similarity to CB, CBE can be detected in chocolate by their triglyceride ratios which are appreciably different from those in CB.
Cocoa butter substitutes (CBS)
Cocoa butter substitutes (CBS) are fats designed to to have similar physical properties to cocoa butter, but very different chemical composition .This means that they are hard at room temperature, yet have relatively low melting point so that they melt quickly in the mouth. In practical terms, their main difference from CBE is that they are incompatible with cocoa butter and so can only be used in the formulation of substitute chocolate. Substitute chocolate is made with cocoa powder rather than cocoa mass and so it lacks the rich flavour of real chocolate. But CBS fats have one big advantage: they do not need tempering and so products based on them can be made on simpler machinery.
There are two main types of CBS, lauric and non-lauric high trans, often called CBX. The latter have higher melting points and may taste rather waxy, but they tolerate some cocoa mass and so can have better flavour. Buyers should always ask to see the manufacturer's specifications, especially for fatty acid composition and full solid fat content profile.
Crystallisation
Fats are made up of a large number of triglycerides each of which has its own melting point. As the temperature is reduced the different triglycerides become crystalline progressively and the fat acquires a semisolid consistency.
The crystals of most fats and blends can have three different forms called alpha, beta prime and beta and which type will be obtained depends on their composition and also on the processing conditions. The type of crystals needed in margarines shortenings and most other food products is the beta prime because it gives to the products a smoother texture and better creaming properties. By a fortunate coincidence, the major tropical oils, palm, coconut and palm kernel, tend to crystallise and remain for long periods in the beta prime form.
Cocoa butter and CBE fats are exceptional fats because they can crystallise in 7 or more forms and it is vital that the product made from this group of fats (usually chocolate) has the correct crystal forms otherwise it will suffer all sorts of defects. The tempering procedure given to chocolate is entirely for the purpose of producing the correct stable crystal forms in it.
Cocoa Butter Extenders (CBX)
CBX are a class of cocoa butter substitutes having different glyceride composition from cocoa butter but fatty fatty acids of the same chain length. Their special distinguishing feature is their high content of trans fatty acids which are absent from cocoa butter.They are usually made from soyabean oil, cottonseed oil, palm olein etc. by hydrogenation under high trans promoting conditions. Because of their greater similarity to cocoa butter, CBX fats tolerate much more of it than the lauric based CBS (up to 20% CB) in their formulations, and usually also have longer gloss shelf life. But but they also have higher melting points and SFC at 35, and so taste more waxy. These fats had a good market share in the past, especially in the US where they were first developed, but are now facing great objections on nutritional grounds because of their high trans content.
Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance which accelerates the rate of a chemical reaction, but remains unaltered by the reaction.
In the oils and fats industry the main use of catalysts is in the hydrogenation process where nickel and very rarely copper chromite are used and in interesterification and trans esterification (bio diesel production) where sodium methoxide is the usual catalyst. It is essential that no traces of these catalysts pass accidentally into the finished deodorised oil, as they will also accelerate its oxidation. Testing for absence of these impurities is one of the tasks undertaken by the laboratories of the major food companies.
Cholesterol
This is a fatty substance belonging to the family of sterols and found mostly in animal tissues. Cholesterol circulates in our blood and is an essential component of cell membranes some hormones . Most of it is made by the liver but some of it is taken up from the foods we eat. Animal fats contain about 0.1- 0.3% cholesterol while vegetable fats only have a trace at about 0.0003%.
Medical authorities in EU recommend a desirable blood cholesterol level of 5 milli moles/L (195 mg/dL). When too much is present and especially oxidised cholesterol which is sticky, it tends to adhere to the artery walls and cause blockages, often leading to heart attacks and strokes. There are two main types of cholesterol, HDL-C which is good and LDL-C, accounting for the greatest part, which is bad. Broadly speaking, saturated and trans fats increase blood cholesterol levels, while monounsaturated fats are neutral and polyunsaturated ones reduce it. In the USA, FDA allows foods to be labelled "cholesterol free" if hey contains less than 2 milligrams cholesterol and 2 grams or less saturated fat, per serving. The nutritional aspects of oils and fats are still controversial and powerful lobbies in the industry are spreading much misinformation. Lay people should only be guided by advice from their own doctors and from official medical authorities.
Chromatography
This is a method for separating mixtures of liquids or gases into their components. For oils (and fats) a variation of the method known as gas liquid chromatography (GLC) is used in which the oil in the form of a gas, is carried over an inert liquid. It is the most convenient and accurate method available, for separating oils into their component fatty acids, or alternatively into their component triglycerides.
Copra
Copra is the dried white meat of coconuts (Cocos nucifera). Its moisture level is usually brought down to 4-7% to avoid mold growth and fat content is 65 - 68%. Drying is done either naturally under the sun, or forced by direct or indirect heat. Direct heating over smokey flames has a high risk of contaminating the copra with dioxin and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) which are genotoxic and suspect carcinogens. Most importing countries now impose strict limits for these contaminants. After pressing or solvent extraction to remove the oil, the copra the meal is used mostly in animal feeds.
Colour
The colour of oils and fats is mostly due to the presence of colour compounds such as carotene and chlorophyll. But some colours also develop during storage, heating etc which are due to oxidation. The colour of an oil and how it behaves during processing is therefore an important indication of its quality and oil trade specifications give maximum limits. There are many different systems for measuring colour, but for oils and fats the usual instrument employed is the Lovibond colorimeter which reads in red and yellow units. The red colour is by far the most important. Users prefer oils to be as pale as possible and so the colour is removed, as far as possible, in a process called bleaching. Oils which are difficult to bleach not only require more bleaching treatment, but also have poorer shelf life. The usual colour specification for good quality RBD PO,olein and stearin is 3 Red, while for CNO and PKO is 1.5 Red, all in 5 1/4 inch Lovibond cell.
Codex Alimentarius
Codex Alimentarius is a commission operating under the auspices of FAO/WHO of the United Nations. It has the task of preparing standards and codes of practice for food products and processes. It operates through a series of committees to which member countries can nominate representatives. The development of each standard is carried out in a series of eleven formal steps, each of which involves approval by the member governments.
The purpose of Codex standards is to facilitate international trade and countries which have formally acceded to the Commission, undertake to adopt these standards in their national legislation. Until then however, these standards are not binding on those countries.
Cold Test
This is a test carried out on liquid oils to assess their cold resistance and is popular in the US. A sample of oil is placed in a 4 oz (115ml) glass sample bottle and immersed in crushed ice (0C) for 51/2 hours. Oils which remain perfectly clear for this time pass the test and can be described as salad oils. Palm oleins do not normally pass this test.